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Sodium carbonate is obtained as three
hydrates and as the anhydrous salt:
- sodium carbonate decahydrate (natron), Na2CO3·10H2O, which readily effloresces to form the monohydrate.
- sodium carbonate heptahydrate (not known in mineral form), Na2CO3·7H2O.
- sodium carbonate monohydrate (thermonatrite), Na2CO3·H2O. Also known as crystal carbonate.
- anhydrous sodium carbonate, also known as calcined soda, is formed by heating the hydrates. It is also formed when sodium hydrogen carbonate is heated (calcined) e.g. in the final step of the Solvay process.
The decahydrate is formed from water solutions crystallizing in the temperature range -2.1 to +32.0 C, the heptahydrate in the narrow range 32.0 to 35.4 C and above this temperature the monohydrate forms.
[13] In dry air the decahydrate and heptahydrate lose water to give the monohydrate. Other hydrates have been reported, e.g. with 2.5 units of water per sodium carbonate unit ("pentahemihydrate").
[14]
Main applicationsEdit
In terms of its largest applications, sodium carbonate is used in the manufacture of glass, paper, rayon, soaps, and detergents.
[15]
Glass manufactureEdit
Sodium carbonate serves as a
flux for
silica, lowering the melting point of the mixture to something achievable without special materials. This "soda glass" is mildly water-soluble, so some
calcium carbonate is added to the melt mixture to make the glass insoluble. Bottle and window glass (
Soda-lime glass) is made by melting such mixtures of sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate, and silica sand (
silicon dioxide (SiO
2)). When these materials are heated, the carbonates release carbon dioxide. In this way, sodium carbonate is a source of sodium oxide. Soda lime glass has been the most common form of glass for centuries.
Water softeningEdit
Sodium carbonate is used to
soften water by removing Mg
2+ and Ca
2+. These ions form insoluble solid precipitates upon treatment with
carbonate ions:
- Ca2+ + CO32- → CaCO3
Sodium carbonate is an inexpensive and water-soluble source of carbonate ions.
Food additive and cookingEdit
Sodium carbonate is a food additive (E500) used as an acidity regulator, anticaking agent, raising agent, and stabilizer. It is one of the components of
kansui (かん水), a solution of alkaline salts used to give
ramen noodles their characteristic flavor and texture. It is used in the production of
snus to stabilize the pH of the final product. Sodium carbonate is used in the production of
sherbet powder. The cooling and fizzing sensation results from the endothermic reaction between sodium carbonate and a weak acid, commonly
citric acid, releasing carbon dioxide gas, which occurs when the sherbet is moistened by saliva. In China, it is used to replace lye-water in the crust of traditional Cantonese
moon cakes, and in many other Chinese steamed buns and noodles. In cooking, it is sometimes used in place of
sodium hydroxide for
lyeing, especially with
German pretzels and lye rolls. These dishes are treated with a solution of an alkaline substance to change the pH of the surface of the food and improve browning.
Inexpensive, weak baseEdit
Sodium carbonate is also used as a relatively strong
base in various fields. As a common alkali, it is preferred in many chemical processes because it is cheaper than
NaOH and far safer to handle. Its mildness especially recommends its use in domestic applications.
For example, it is used as a
pH regulator to maintain stable alkaline conditions necessary for the action of the majority of photographic
film developing agents. It is also a common additive in
swimming pools and
aquarium water to maintain a desired pH and carbonate hardness (KH). In
dyeing with fiber-reactive dyes, sodium carbonate (often under a name such as soda ash fixative or soda ash activator) is used to ensure proper chemical bonding of the dye with cellulose (plant) fibers, typically before dyeing (for tie dyes), mixed with the dye (for dye painting), or after dyeing (for immersion dyeing). It is also used in the
froth flotation process to maintain a favourable
pH as a float conditioner besides
CaO and other mildly basic compounds.
Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) or baking soda, also a component in fire extinguishers, is often generated from sodium carbonate. Although NaHCO3 is itself an intermediate product of the Solvay process, the heating needed to remove the ammonia that contaminates it decomposes some NaHCO3, making it more economic to react finished Na2CO3 with CO2:
- Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O → 2NaHCO3
In a related reaction, sodium carbonate is used to make
sodium bisulfite (NaHSO
3), which is used for the "sulfite" method of separating
lignin from cellulose. This reaction is exploited for removing
sulfur dioxide from flue gases in power stations:
- Na2CO3 + SO2 + H2O → NaHCO3 + NaHSO3
This application has become more common, especially where stations have to meet stringent emission controls.
Sodium carbonate is used by the cotton industry to neutralize the sulfuric acid needed for acid delinting of fuzzy cottonseed.
MiscellaneousEdit
Sodium carbonate is used by the brick industry as a wetting agent to reduce the amount of water needed to extrude the clay. In casting, it is referred to as "bonding agent" and is used to allow wet
alginate to adhere to gelled alginate. Sodium carbonate is used in toothpastes, where it acts as a foaming agent and an abrasive, and to temporarily increase mouth pH. Also it is used in the of processing of, and tanning, animal hides.
The integral
enthalpy of solution of sodium carbonate is −28.1 kJ/mol for a 10% w/w aqueous solution.
[16] The
Mohs hardness of sodium carbonate monohydrate is 1.3.
[6]
Structure of monohydrate at 346 K.
Sodium carbonate is soluble in water, and can occur naturally in arid regions, especially in mineral deposits (
evaporites) formed when seasonal lakes evaporate. Deposits of the mineral
natron have been mined from dry lake bottoms in Egypt since ancient times, when natron was used in the preparation of
mummies and in the early manufacture of glass.
The anhydrous mineral form of sodium carbonate is quite rare and called natrite. Sodium carbonate also erupts from
Ol Doinyo Lengai, Tanzania's unique volcano, and it is presumed to have erupted from other volcanoes in the past, but due to these minerals' instability at the earth's surface, are likely to be eroded. All three mineralogical forms of sodium carbonate, as well as
trona, trisodium hydrogendicarbonate dihydrate, are also known from ultra-alkaline
pegmatitic rocks, that occur for example in the
Kola Peninsula in Russia.
Extraterrestrially, known sodium carbonate is rare. Deposits have been identified as the source of
bright spots on Ceres, interior material that has been brought to the surface.
[17] While there are
carbonates on Mars, and these are expected to include sodium carbonate,
[18] deposits have yet to be confirmed, this absence is explained by some as being due to a global dominance of low
pH in previously aqueous
Martian soil.
[19]
Trona,
trisodium hydrogendicarbonate dihydrate (Na
3HCO
3CO
3·2H
2O), is mined in several areas of the US and provides nearly all the domestic consumption of sodium carbonate. Large natural deposits found in 1938, such as the one near
Green River, Wyoming, have made mining more economical than industrial production in North America. There are important reserves of trona in Turkey; two million tons of soda ash have been extracted from the reserves near Ankara. It is also mined from some alkaline lakes such as
Lake Magadi in Kenya by dredging. Hot saline springs continuously replenish salt in the lake so that, provided the rate of dredging is no greater than the replenishment rate, the source is fully sustainable.
[citation needed]
Barilla and kelpEdit
Several "
halophyte" (salt-tolerant) plant species and seaweed species can be processed to yield an impure form of sodium carbonate, and these sources predominated in Europe and elsewhere until the early 19th century. The land plants (typically
glassworts or
saltworts) or the seaweed (typically
Fucus species) were harvested, dried, and burned. The ashes were then "lixiviated" (washed with water) to form an alkali solution. This solution was boiled dry to create the final product, which was termed "soda ash"; this very old name refers to the archetypal plant source for soda ash, which was the small annual shrub
Salsola soda ("barilla plant").
The sodium carbonate concentration in soda ash varied very widely, from 2–3 percent for the seaweed-derived form ("
kelp"), to 30 percent for the best
barilla produced from
saltwort plants in Spain. Plant and seaweed sources for soda ash, and also for the related
alkali "
potash", became increasingly inadequate by the end of the 18th century, and the search for commercially viable routes to synthesizing soda ash from salt and other chemicals intensified.
[20]
Leblanc processEdit
- 2NaCl + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2HCl
- Na2SO4 + 2C → Na2S + 2CO2
The second stage is the reaction to produce sodium carbonate and
calcium sulfide:
- Na2S + CaCO3 → Na2CO3 + CaS
This mixture is called black ash. The soda ash is extracted from the black ash with water. Evaporation of this extract yields solid sodium carbonate. This extraction process was termed lixiviation.
The hydrochloric acid produced by the
Leblanc process was a major source of air pollution, and the
calcium sulfide byproduct also presented waste disposal issues. However, it remained the major production method for sodium carbonate until the late 1880s.
[20][21]
Solvay processEdit
In 1861, the
Belgian industrial chemist
Ernest Solvay developed a method to convert sodium chloride to sodium carbonate using
ammonia and carbon dioxide:
[15]- NaCl + NH3 + CO2 + H2O → NaHCO3 + NH4Cl
The sodium bicarbonate was then converted to sodium carbonate by heating it, releasing water and carbon dioxide:
- 2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
Meanwhile, the ammonia was regenerated from the
ammonium chloride byproduct by treating it with the lime (
calcium oxide) left over from carbon dioxide generation:
- 2NH4Cl + CaO → 2NH3 + CaCl2 + H2O
The Solvay process recycles its ammonia. It consumes only brine and limestone, and
calcium chloride is its only waste product. The process is substantially more economical than the Leblanc process, which generates two waste products,
calcium sulfide and
hydrogen chloride. The Solvay process quickly came to dominate sodium carbonate production worldwide. By 1900, 90% of sodium carbonate was produced by the Solvay process, and the last Leblanc process plant closed in the early 1920s.
[15]
The second step of the Solvay process, heating sodium bicarbonate, is used on a small scale by home cooks and in restaurants to make sodium carbonate for culinary purposes (including pretzels and alkali noodles). The method is appealing to such users because sodium bicarbonate is widely sold as baking soda, and the temperatures required (250 °F (121 °C) to 300 °F (149 °C)) to convert baking soda to sodium carbonate are readily achieved in conventional kitchen
ovens.
[22]
Hou's processEdit
This process was developed by Chinese chemist
Hou Debang in the 1930s. The earlier
steam reforming byproduct carbon dioxide was pumped through a saturated solution of
sodium chloride and ammonia to produce sodium bicarbonate by these reactions:
- CH4 + 2H2O → CO2 + 4H2
- 3H2 + N2 → 2NH3
- NH3 + CO2 + H2O → NH4HCO3
- NH4HCO3 + NaCl → NH4Cl + NaHCO3
The sodium bicarbonate was collected as a precipitate due to its low solubility and then heated up to approximately 80 °C (176 °F) or 95 °C (203 °F) to yield pure sodium carbonate similar to last step of the Solvay process. More sodium chloride is added to the remaining solution of ammonium and sodium chlorides; also, more ammonia is pumped at 30-40 °C to this solution. The solution temperature is then lowered to below 10 °C. Solubility of ammonium chloride is higher than that of sodium chloride at 30 °C and lower at 10 °C. Due to this temperature-dependent solubility difference and the
common-ion effect, ammonium chloride is precipitated in a sodium chloride solution.
The Chinese name of Hou's process,
lianhe zhijian fa (
联合制碱法), means "coupled manufacturing alkali method": Hou's process is coupled to the
Haber process and offers better
atom economy by eliminating the production of calcium chloride, since ammonia no longer needs to be regenerated. The byproduct ammonium chloride can be sold as a fertilizer.
